Romans 1:17

Paul's original audience in Rome -- a mixed Jewish and Gentile congregation -- heard this as a thesis statement for the entire letter. 'The righteousness of God' (dikaiosyne theou) introduced the central argument: God's saving action through the faithfulness of Christ, received by human faith. The quotation from Habakkuk 2:4 ('the righteous shall live by faith') connected Paul's Gospel to Israel's prophetic tradition, showing continuity between old covenant and new.

Augustine understood 'the righteousness of God' as the righteousness God grants to believers through grace, not human merit. This interpretation shaped Western theology for a millennium. Augustine emphasized that faith itself is a gift of God's grace ('from faith to faith'), not a human achievement. His anti-Pelagian writings drew heavily on Romans to argue that fallen humanity cannot earn God's favor but must receive righteousness as a divine gift.

In medieval theology, 'the righteousness of God' was increasingly understood as God's strict, retributive justice -- the attribute by which God judges and punishes sinners. Combined with the penitential system and the treasury of merit, this reading made 'the righteousness of God' a terrifying concept. Believers sought to satisfy God's justice through sacramental acts, indulgences, and works of penance.

Luther's famous 'tower experience' transformed his reading of this verse. He had hated the phrase 'the righteousness of God,' understanding it as punishing justice. Through intense study, he realized it meant the righteousness by which God, through grace and mercy, justifies us by faith -- a 'passive righteousness' received, not an 'active righteousness' achieved. This breakthrough became the core of Reformation theology: justification by grace alone through faith alone. Luther called it the moment he felt 'born again' and that 'the gates of paradise had opened.'

Contemporary New Testament scholarship debates whether 'pistis Christou' (faith of/in Christ) is a subjective genitive (Christ's own faithfulness) or objective genitive (human faith in Christ). The 'New Perspective on Paul' (N.T. Wright, James Dunn) reads 'the righteousness of God' as God's covenant faithfulness -- His commitment to put the world right -- rather than an attribute imputed to individuals. This challenges both Catholic and Protestant traditional readings while opening new dialogue between them.